This paper deals with managing a crisis in a wilderness situation. The terms "crisis" and "turning point" are used to describe what is more traditionally called an accident. Using these terms introduces the idea that crisis events occur as logical consequences of preceding decisions, errors, or omissions, not as the result of…

Experienced teams competing in multiple adventure activities, several of which involved ropes, kept their harnesses on all day. Safety procedures included an initial check of buckles and harnesses by an instructor, but failed to recognize that participants would remove their harnesses for toilet purposes. Lists other possible safety errors for…

Examines ways in which outdoor adventure programs can guard against charges of negligence and the possibility of lawsuits without diluting challenge or participant satisfaction. Discusses risk management, insurance, safety guidelines to use in the development of program-specific standards, and accident prevention. Contains 19 references. (SV)

Reviews the history of risk management and currently popular risk management tools, e.g., item-decision model and frequency/severity matrix. Discusses the safety record of outdoor adventure programs including data on injury rates and frequent accident types. Argues for flexible and realistic safety procedures and serious study of the phenomenon of…

Emphasizes the responsibility of eliminating unacceptable levels of safety risks in outdoor education programs, without destroying opportunities for challenging experiences that allow the spontaneity and freedom of movement necessary for the development of self-reliance and self-growth for students. (JD)

Describes a 10-step process for analyzing danger as a way of reducing the chance that an accident will happen, or minimizing its consequences to acceptable and recoverable levels. Factors that can inhibit the process include inappropriate attribution, relaxed concentration, rushing to maintain a schedule, group or peer pressure, and poor judgment.…

The fundamental dilemma in adventure programming is eliminating unreasonable risks to participants without also reducing levels of excitement, challenge, and stress. Most accidents are caused by a combination of unsafe conditions, unsafe acts, and error judgments. The best and only way to minimize critical human error in adventure programs is…

The Accident Frequency-Severity Chart (AFSC) is a tool for correctly assessing and appropriately coping with risks inherent in adventure programs. The AFSC helps to measure risk frequency (likelihood of loss) and severity (amount of loss) of specific outdoor activities. The AFSC can also be used to compare safety records of outdoor activities and…

This paper discusses subjective hazards in wilderness activities and suggests means of assessing and managing related risks. Wilderness educators conveniently group hazards into objective and subjective ones. Objective hazards such as rockfall, moving water, and weather, while not necessarily predictable, are visible and understandable. Subjective…

Climbers' perceptions of risk are influenced by psychological and sociological phenomena that cause them to accept higher levels of real risk without awareness that risks have increased. Groups, for example, make riskier decisions than members would recommend individually. By recognizing risk affecting phenomena, climbers can avoid many…

This paper stresses the outdoor recreation and education professionals should understand aspects of liability, negligence, and risk management. There are four elements that must be present if a person or organization is to be considered negligent: the presence of a legal duty of care, a breach of duty, proximate cause, and actual damages. When…

lines insurance needs for adventure education programs. Gives results of a survey (65 percent response rate) of 68 adventure education programs and their insurance coverage or reasons why they had no insurance. Discusses risk management for adventure education programs. (MH)

This paper begins by presenting three tests, which are included in the appendix, of one's awareness of physical risks. This exercise leads to a discussion of the differences between actual and perceived risk, why people participate in outdoor activities, and the inaccurate perception of actual risks. Complicating the issue of accurately perceiving…

Defining the nature and extent of risk associated with adventure education, this article notes the riskiest activities and delineates three main causes of accidents: unsafe conditions; unsafe acts; and judgmental errors. Careful program organization, staff selection, routine safety inspections, and emergency plans are also addressed. (SB)

Suggestions for meeting licensing requirements for adventure education programs in the United Kingdom include identifying risks that could result in death or disabling injury, determining whether these risks are being adequately controlled, documenting appropriate supervision of instructors, developing a safety policy that addresses staff…