Mathematical proficiency is essential to supporting students' success in learning mathematics. It is the ability to use conceptual understanding, procedural fluency, strategic competence, adaptive reasoning, and productive disposition in problem-solving. Cognitive independence shows students' ability to process information. Meanwhile, motivation…

Completion of the Group Embedded Figures Test by 237 secondary marketing education students determined that most students, particularly females, had only low to moderate restructuring skills, needed for complex cognitive tasks; and most had career goals congruent with their attitudes and social skills but not their cognitive aptitude for…

This research examined the learning style factor of field dependence/independence and the problem solving strategies of Hmong male refugee students 17 years old and older who were attending or planning to attend post secondary education institutions in Wisconsin and Minnesota. The research was conducted from July 1986 to July 1987 to test two…

Research indicates that novice problem solvers represent and organize knowledge differently from experts. The novice engaged in problem solving activities is of interest to educators because efficient instruction reduces the differences between initial intuitive knowledge representations and the true concepts to be mastered. A particular cognitive…