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Equifinality and Multifinality: Diversity in Development from Infancy into Childhood.

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Feiring, Candice; Lewis, Michael – 1987

The conceptualizations of morphogenic processes suggested by systems theorists provide a useful framework for describing growth and development in complex adaptive self-directing organisms. These processes involve changes in (1) a system's structure, state, or functioning; (2) discontinuities in development; and (3) at least two kinds of…

Descriptors: Attachment Behavior, Behavior Problems, Children, Developmental Continuity

Children's Intellectual and Emotional-Behavioral Adjustment at 4 Years as a Function of Cocaine Exposure, Maternal Characteristics, and Environmental Risk.

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Bennett, David S.; Bendersky, Margaret; Lewis, Michael – Developmental Psychology, 2002

Examined 4-year-olds for effects on IQ of prenatal cocaine exposure, exposure to other substances, risk factors, and neonatal medical problems. Found that maternal verbal IQ and low environmental risk predicted child IQ. Cocaine exposure negatively predicted children's overall IQ and verbal reasoning scores for boys only. Maternal harsh…

Descriptors: Adjustment (to Environment), At Risk Persons, Behavior Problems, Children