For the past decade, the accountability model associated with No Child Left Behind (NCLB) emphasized proficiency on end of year tests; with Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) the emphasis on proficiency within statewide testing programs, though now integrated with other measures of student learning, nevertheless remains a primary metric for…

In the IEA PIRLS International Report, a number of indices of reading-related constructs were introduced for the purpose of explaining the variation in reading achievement. These indices, however, raise issues of reliability and validity, due to the way in which they are derived and due to the quality of the data. Targeting these issues, the…