The important but little understood problem that motivated this study was the lack of research on valid assessment methods to determine progress in higher-order learning in situations involving complex and ill-structured problems. Without a valid assessment method, little progress can occur in instructional design research with regard to designing…

In this article, teachers who seek a career as a school administrator envision their leadership will be transformational and charismatic, yet they are often surprised by the conflict and confrontation that is an inevitable part of school administration. This disconnect between the ideal of the vision and the reality often produces disappointment…