Background: Physically manipulating objects according to texts can improve reading performance. This study examined whether these benefits can also be achieved via observing these manipulations or whether, because of an additional involvement of an action system, the physical manipulation might induce larger effects. Methods: In total, 134 second…

Autonomous learning materials play a vital role in developing students' autonomy. By providing students with appropriate autonomous learning materials to meet their self-diagnosis learning needs, this can effectively improve students' academic performance. During the COVID-19 pandemic, students' learning changed from offline to online. However, in…