Redundancy effect has been investigated in many controlled experimental studies, however, it is seldom investigated whether the same redundant material may cause different results in classroom, which is a major learning place for students. Considering that it is not easy to control the internal validity in classroom environment, this study…

Collaborative learning helps to construct a learning situation in which students solve problems together, and their learning effectiveness is promoted. However, collaborative learning often has the problem of unequal participation of learners. Therefore, this study combines the collaborative learning mode of the virtual environment of digital…

Calibration between judged and actual performance related to cognitive certitude is known as "cognitive certitude of calibration" (CCC). CCC is an essential factor that can affect an individual's calibration behavior related to his/her learning effectiveness mediated by cognitive and affective factors, such as cognitive anxiety, learning…