Background: The most recent Norwegian educational reform, in force from 2020, was the first to include games alongside more traditional language learning resources (e.g., novels, films, music) in the English curriculum for secondary school. This educational emphasis on games provided a unique opportunity to examine how games are actually used in…

A common assumption in multimedia design is that audio-visual materials with pictures and spoken narrations lead to better learning outcomes than visual-only materials with pictures and on-screen text. The present study questions the generalizability of this modality effect. We explored how modality effects change over time, taking into account…