In Germany, the final grade of a doctorate is significant for careers inside and outside the academic labor market. Particularly important is the highest grade--"summa cum laude." At the same time, doctoral grades are constantly subject to criticism. Thus far, however, neither German nor international studies have examined the…

Causal considerations must be relevant for those making decisions. Whether to bring an umbrella or leave it at home depends on the causal consequences of these options. However, most current decision theories do not address causal reasoning. Here, the authors propose a causal model theory of choice based on causal Bayes nets. The critical ideas…