Background: The reciprocal internal/external frame of reference (RI/E) combines two models of academic self-concept formation, namely the reciprocal effects model (REM) and the internal/external frame of reference (I/E) model. The REM assumes reciprocal relations between achievement and academic self-concept. The I/E model assumes contrast effects…

This study expanded on research on temporal relations among motivation constructs as stated by expectancy-value theory, which has so far neglected the differentiation of value facets, the examination of long time spans with multiple measurement waves, and domain-specific patterns of findings. We examined the longitudinal relations among academic…

The existence of gender-STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) stereotypes has been repeatedly documented. This article examines physics teachers' gender bias in grading and the influence of teaching experience in Switzerland, Austria, and Germany. In a 2?×?2 between-subjects design, with years of teaching experience included as…