Neoliberal ideology compels people to develop language skills as human capital. As English is considered to be the most useful language for global communication, learning, and teaching, English has been promoted in many countries. However, the belief that English connects people from diverse linguistic backgrounds in a borderless society…

On the premise that the fundamental character of international interchange lies in a cruel and merciless collision of mutually suspicious and distrustful cultures, the historical resistance of the Japanese to cultural interchange is examined, the consequences of international trade without interchange noted, and the means of escape outlined. (JT)