Classical cognitive accounts of verbal short-term memory (STM) invoke an abstract, phonological level of representation which, although it may be derived differently via different modalities, is itself amodal. Key evidence for this view is that serial recall of phonologically similar verbal items (e.g., the letter sounds "b",…

In earlier work the concept of "Orientation" (O) was proposed as the key factor in successful literacy acquisition. This article develops that idea further to discuss the potential of "Orientation Theory" (OT) to unite current conflicts between apparently opposing theories of dyslexia. After briefly outlining these theoretical…