This digest reviews perspectives on the supervisory relationship from the recent supervision literature. It examines the relative importance of the relationship within the total supervision process; variables which influence the relationship; and how the relationship differs when working with experienced versus inexperienced counselors. The…

Intended for administrators and policymakers as well as teachers, this digest examines invented spelling, describes the developmental stages of learning how to spell, and considers implications for classroom instruction. After defining invented spelling, the digest describes the precommunicative, semiphonetic, phonetic, transitional, and correct…

This digest examines the meanings of career development which have evolved since the 1950s; discusses the diversity of programs, tools and techniques in career development today; and explores future trends in the field. It discusses expanding populations and settings for career development, examines career development in the schools and with…

This ERIC Digest discusses children's play and its relationship to developmental growth from infancy to middle childhood. Discussion focuses on: (1) sensorimotor play in which infants and toddlers experiment with bodily sensation, motor movements, objects, and people; (2) pretend play in which children carry out action plans, take on roles, and…

Changes in the composition of the work force and changing work values require new life span and career development models that account for individual, gender, and cultural differences in experience. Age/stage models form one school of thought in developmental theory. A major criticism of prevailing theories is that they are based on male…

The digest addresses ways that parents and educators can nurture giftedness in young children. Problems in appropriate school placement for young gifted children with uneven development are discussed and illustrated with examples. In selecting a program, parents need to look for a highly individualized program in which children are encouraged to…

Disruptive behavior, which can range from tardiness to violence against classmates or staff members, is a growing problem in adult basic education (ABE). Many feel that this is because ABE programs have begun serving young adults below the age of 18 who are quite different from their more mature classmates both psychologically and emotionally.…

One notable gap in the evolving literature on bullying and victimization during early adolescence is the role that peers play in promoting such behavior by either reinforcing the aggressor, failing to intervene to stop the victimization, or affiliating with students who bully. This Digest looks at the limited research available on the role of the…

This digest presents a summary discussion of the value of holding science fairs in the elementary school context. Reasons for conducting science fairs for elementary students are discussed in terms of several learning theories. Developmentally appropriate types of elementary science projects are suggested. Goals for elementary school science fairs…

One notable gap in the evolving literature on bullying and victimization during early adolescence is the role that peers play in promoting such behavior by either reinforcing the aggressor, failing to intervene to stop the victimization, or affiliating with students who bully. This Spanish-language Digest looks at the limited research available on…

Career exploration is a developmental stage identified by career development theorists and occurs typically during adolescents when boys and girls try out various work roles in part time work, volunteer work, or in school/community activities. This digest focuses on gender differences in the role of assessment in the exploration process. Girls…

This digest provides parents of highly or profoundly gifted children with practical suggestions based on the experience of other parents and the modest amount of research available. Parents are encouraged to understand that such children are significantly different from other children and have two primary needs: to feel comfortable with themselves…

Results of national studies suggest that for girls, the middle grades can be a time of significant decline in self-esteem and academic achievement. Reasons for this decline are not clearly indicated by research, but it is likely that multiple factors are involved. One factor is the preferential treatment boys receive in the classroom.…

Noting that college-level critical thinking instruction is now an interdisciplinary movement coordinating such fields as English, rhetoric, philosophy, and developmental psychology, this digest surveys the history of critical thinking studies in these converging disciplines and argues that literature study preeminently encompasses the mental…

Various researchers, including Carl Jung, Charlotte Buhler, Erik Erikson, and Robert Havighurst, have formulated sequential models of adult development. More recent investigators, such as Daniel Levinson, Roger Gould, and Gail Sheehy have formulated age-related sequential models of adult development that view the various stages of adulthood in…