Many recent articles, research papers, and conference presentations about Lev Vygotsky's zone of proximal development (ZPD) emphasize the "extended" version of the ZPD that reflects human emotions and desires. In this essay, Michael G. Levykh expands on the extant literature on the ZPD through developing several new ideas. First, he maintains that…

Two views of emotion in the writings of Paulo Freire are discussed. Freire views emotions as critical forces to be curbed if not eliminated. Emotions are also seen as a necessary part of that essential element of education for critical consciousness--dialog. (JN)

To shed light on whether reason or attitudes, the intellect or the emotions, should be the primary focus of educational efforts, the writings of Jean Paul Sartre on human motivation are digested. Educators should foster the conscious and deliberate acceptance of the human condition of freedom. (PP)

The validity of Lawrence Kohlberg's empirical findings and of his cognitive developmental approach to understanding moral development is questioned. An alternative theory of moral development which emphasizes moral sensibility as well as reasoned moral judgment is proposed. (PP)

The infant's impressions of his environment are viewed by several philosophers, including Jean Piaget. There has been some past tendency to suppose that, prior to the acquisition of language, the infant has no real impressions about his environment. More recent understandings consider that the infant is capable of conceptualization and can express…