Concludes that depression consists of low reward motivation and high punisher motivation. Depressed people exhibit their most severe motivational deficits in ambiguous social situations. Depressed people engage in few instrumental and operant behaviors, and in many escape and avoidance behaviors. (Author)

This article reviews self-fulfilling prophecies in three sequential stages: (1) teachers develop expectations, (2) teachers treat students differently depending on expectations, and (3) students react to treatment in expectancy-confirming ways. The focus is on social and psychological events at each stage, causal processes linking stages, and…

Research on interpersonal influence within counseling psychology has focused primarily on the characteristics of the counselor. There is a need to study the role of client characteristics in resistance or noncompliance. A review of the literature indicates that most client characteristics associated with noncompliance in therapy can be narrowed…