Reading mathematics differs from reading prose, and needs special treatment by the teacher. Thirteen necessary skills are described; these include knowing what to read next, using mathematical words, seeing and understanding symbols, reading charts, and searching for meaning. Techniques and activities to enhance these skills are discussed. (SD)

Many of the difficulties that students have with mathematical symbolism seem to stem from the use of a horizontal form for an equation and a vertical form for computation. The differences between these two forms are discussed. (JT)

Some students can perform operations on fractions when using physical materials, but are unable to transfer this ability to operations with symbolic expressions. They seem to view the manipulative and paper-and-pencil problems as different and are not surprised to get different answers. (SD)

A review of several studies on the role of concrete and symbolic models in facilitating the learning of mathematical ideas, and a discussion of their implications for instruction are presented. (DT)

If the principles of languages are applied to the learning of arithmetic, it appears that elementary grade pupils are being introduced to mathematical symbols at too early an age. (MP)

The problems of using formalistic methods in the instruction of mathematics to elementary level children are discussed. Precision in mathematical language is not seen as a useful instructional tool, and functional modes of communication are stressed. (MP)