This article is the second in a series (see Willis, 2011) that looks at the current status of instructional design scholarship and theory. In this concluding article, the focus is on two cultures of ID work, one based on constructivist and interpretivist theory and the other based on critical theory and critical pedagogy. There are distinct…

There are at least three powerful insights for educational technology researchers and designers from recent neuroscience studies of the brain and from cognitive science research findings: First, our brains learn and process two very different types of knowledge; non-conscious, automated, procedural, or implicit knowledge, and conscious,…

Working in teams is an important aspect of learning in various educational settings. Although education has embraced instructional strategies that use multiple learners to facilitate learning, the benefits of team-based learning need to be substantiated. There are limited efforts to evaluate the efficacy of learning processes associated with…

The author argues that Instructional Design (ID) is a problem-solving process, not a procedure, made up of a thinking process common to designers in many fields, and a set of well-accepted, underlying ID principles. This article presents a model of those principles. Further, it argues that teaching ID as a well-structured procedure is not helpful…

Discusses electronic learning via the Internet, suggests that simply presenting information to learners may not be the best way for learning to occur, and proposes a social constructivist approach based on Vygotskian theories of learning and situated cognition. Highlights include constructivist learning; constructivist models; and an example of…

Provides an overview to this section that continues discussions and responses from a previous issue that addressed situated cognition and its implications for learning. The situated learning model is explained, including the key components of apprenticeship, collaboration, reflection, coaching, multiple practice, and articulation of learning…

Proposes a cognitive-based model for instructional design that addresses the acquisition and employment of knowledge, the interaction of content knowledge and cognitive strategies for higher order thinking skills, and the affective domain. Educational learning theory is discussed, including working memory, long-term memory, and cognitive skills.…

Discusses the field of instructional systems technology (IST) and suggests the need for new models of learning. The change in learning psychology from behaviorism to cognitive psychology is described, a constructivistic approach to IST is explained, and cognitive tools including intelligent tutoring systems are considered. (Nine references) (LRW)

Discusses the relationship between situated cognition and anchored instruction in response to criticism of a previous article. Topics addressed include school versus nonschool settings; learning by observing models; "real-world" problem solving; transfer of training; and future work. (26 references) (LRW)

Guidelines presented for the design of instruction using interactive technologies are based on theory and research in learning, instruction, and/or media development. Also explained is a meta-model, ROPES, which highlights retrieval of information, orienting activities, presentation, encoding in the cognitive structure, and the sequencing of…

Presents an instructional design model for software that was developed to increase the effectiveness of computer-assisted instruction in the classroom. The importance of basing the design of instructional materials on valid learning theories is discussed, and efforts to increase the effectiveness of instructional software are described. (39…

Examines the relationship between instructional technology and cognition and discusses interactions between the learner and instructional media. Models of the learning process are described, including reactive, proactive, and interactive models; examples of each are given; and their implications for instructional design are suggested. (LRW)

Discusses three major areas in which cognitive psychology and educational technology are affecting instructional design (ID) theory: (1) analysis of information, including content analysis and task analysis; (2) the means of evaluating learners; and (3) linking learning theory with specific instructional strategies through an integrated…

Describes the Novice-Expert (Novex) Analysis, a nine-step approach to instructional design aimed at effecting the shift from novice to expert by creating a series of learning activities to enable novices to construct an expert knowledge base. The "Dimensions of Processing Model" diagram illustrates how learning processes influence…

Explains the use of instructional design with a mastery learning strategy (IDML) in teaching mathematics. The IDML model, a combination of other theories including Gagne's instructional events, has been used to improve mathematics instruction in Malaysian schools, and includes developing test items, the teachers' development of learning materials,…