Multiple imputation (MI) is a popular method for handling missing data. In education research, it can be challenging to use MI because the data often have a clustered structure that need to be accommodated during MI. Although much research has considered applications of MI in hierarchical data, little is known about its use in cross-classified…

Large-scale assessments (LSAs) use Mislevy's "plausible value" (PV) approach to relate student proficiency to noncognitive variables administered in a background questionnaire. This method requires background variables to be completely observed, a requirement that is seldom fulfilled. In this article, we evaluate and compare the…