Examines content and problem effects of formal thought in 13-year-olds (N=120). Three controlling variables tasks with different content and two question-type tests (analysis and controlling questions) were administered. Findings, among others, indicate that content and problem effects contribute to variance on formal reasoning problems.…

Twelve pupils from each of 13 middle school science classes participated in this study. Findings, among others, indicate that two of nine engagement measures (attending and generalizing), together with formal reasoning ability, were related to process skill, achievement, and retention. (JN)