The purpose of this study was to explore and to compare the programs at two Pennsylvania Universities for students with intellectual disabilities (ID). The study explored how each university began the program from idea to implementation, including why and when it was started. The first university in this study was a four-year private school that…

This paper describes the confirmatory factor analysis, validity, and reliability data collection stage of the development of a scale to measure mainstream teachers' self-efficacy beliefs for teaching ELL (English Language Learner) students. Data were collected from 708 K through 12 teachers and pre-service teachers with varying degrees of…

The literature suggests that children who struggle with communication during social interactions, called "pragmatic language" in the field of speech language pathology, have fewer opportunities to engage in social practices that promote learning because of inadequate skills in interacting with others. Children with even subtle difficulties in…