This paper attempts to lay out some of the factors that need to be considered when a philanthropy decides to put a greater emphasis on "outcomes." The factors are divided into three broad categories: technical, substantive, and strategic. Technical factors are those dealing with how to measure outcomes. It must be recognized that…

The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLBA) requires that states improve academic performance so that all students reach proficiency in reading and math by 2014 and that achievement gaps close among student groups. States set annual proficiency targets using an approach known as a status model, which calculates test scores 1 year at a time. Some states…