The use of the audio medium (e.g., audiobooks and podcasts) is proliferating in everyday and educational contexts. Yet, research investigating text processing in audio compared to the more commonly used print medium is limited in scope. Specifically, the research so far has majorly focused on younger learners or English language learners,…

This study investigates the effects of individual differences in working memory and different lengths of planning time on oral responses from an integrated listen-to-speak task, both in isolation and in conjunction with one another. Previous studies on planning time in a second language assessment context have largely neglected to incorporate the…