This bibliography includes studies of defense mechanisms, in general, and studies of multiple mechanisms. Defense mechanisms, briefly and simply defined, are the unconscious ego defendants against unpleasure, threat, or anxiety. Sigmund Freud deserves the clinical credit for studying many mechanisms and introducing them in professional literature.…

Sigmund Freund worked with the mechanisms of displacement, substitution, and sublimation. These mechanisms have many similarities and have been studied diagnostically and therapeutically. Displacement and substitution seem to fit in well with phobias, hysterias, somatiyations, prejudices, and scapegoating. Phobias, prejudices, and scapegoating…

Reaction formation was studied by Sigmund Freud. This defense mechanism may be related to repression, substitution, reversal, and compensation (or over-compensation). Alfred Adler considered compensation a basic process in his individual psychology. Anna Freud discussed some defense mechanisms, and Bibring, Dwyer, Huntington, and Valenstein…

Obsessive thoughts (intellectualization, obsessive ideation) were studied by S. Freud, as were compulsions. The former are related to isolation, fixed ideas, compartmentalization, and encapsulation but differ from intellectuality. Compulsions are related to obsessive acts, ritualizations, and undoing but differ from habit. Analagously, obsessive…

Identification, introjection, incorporation, and internalization dealt with the same basic process according to S. Freud. The process has been discussed and researched in many and varied personal-social contexts. There have been two general areas of concern: identification for positive reasons (often called developmental) and identification for…