Representational competence in science is the ability to generate external representations (e.g. equations, graphs) of real-world phenomena, transform between these representations, and use them in an integrated fashion. Difficulties in achieving representational competence are often considered central to difficulties in learning science.…

Background: Research studies (e.g., Phakiti, Language Testing 25(2):237-272, 2008a; Phakiti, Language Assessment Quarterly 5(1): 20-42, 2008b; Purpura, Learner strategy use and performance on language tests: a structural equation modeling approach, 1999) conducted on the construct validation of Bachman and Palmer's (1996) strategic competencehas…

Researchers and educators recognize that performance assessments and naturalistic observations are well suited for assessing young children's thinking abilities and understanding. The need to establish explicit evaluation criteria to guide assessment decisions has led to the widespread use of rubrics. Rubrics tend to channel assessors to look for…

The transition from student to expert professional can be accelerated when a trajectory for change is plotted and made visible to learners. Trajectories or paths toward expertise are domain specific and must first be documented and then used within instructional contexts to promote knowledge transitions. This article describes how models of…