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Iwan A. J. Sianturi; Zaleha Ismail; Der-Ching Yang – Mathematics Education Research Journal, 2024
This study examines the conceptual understanding of numbers and operations among 372 fifth-grade students, based on their responses to an online three-tier test designed to assess their number sense, declarative knowledge, explanatory knowledge, and confidence. The results showed that most students had low performance and low number sense, with…
Descriptors: Numbers, Arithmetic, Mathematical Concepts, Concept Formation