The function of any behavior (or chain of behaviors) can only be determined by identifying the prevailing antecedent motivating condition (Cipani & Cipani, 2019). The author dubs this antecedent condition the driving force of behavior. What you desire at a particular point in time, if such desire is at a sufficient level, executes two effects.…

Research has suggested that students from underserved and underrepresented backgrounds (e.g., students of color and those with disabilities) have received higher rates of exclusionary discipline (e.g., suspensions and expulsions) than their peers who are White and without disability. Various interventions have been implemented to address this…

In this article, the author presents his views on Michael's (1975) and Baron and Galizio's (2005) arguments on eliminating the distinction between positive and negative reinforcement. He first discusses Michael's concept of these two types of operations and contrasts it with the notions of Baron and Galizio. The author provides the readers his own…

The author of this article presents his own explanation on the two types of conditioning--respondent and operant. He states that when withdrawal of a negative reinforcer is the contingency that increases the strength of the operant behavior, the stimulus will have a negative emotional response to the experimental chamber. However, when a positive…

Educational experience in the community provides students with moderate and severe intellectual disabilities the opportunity to learn and rehearse skills they need to participate fully in community environments. The degree to which students with intellectual disabilities participate in their communities is often dependent on their ability to…

Baron and Galizio (2005) reviewed and updated Michael's (1975) observations concerning the problems surrounding the distinction between positive and negative reinforcement. In the end they concluded that the valence is unjustified. However, despite the fact that the logical and empirical underpinnings of the distinction have been questioned for…

Video feedforward can create images of positive futures, as has been shown by researchers using self-modeling methods to teach new skills with carefully planned and edited videos that show the future capability of the individual. As a supplement to tutoring provided by community members, we extended these practices to young children struggling to…