Behavior contracts, also known as contingency contracts, have been used as a behavioral strategy for decades (Allen et al., 1993; Bowman-Perrott et al., 2015). Originating from the field of applied behavioral analysis, behavior contracts define behavioral expectations and specify contingent rewards for displaying target behaviors (Cooper et al.,…

The Good Behavior Game (GBG) is an effective intervention to reduce disruptive behavior. The GBG typically involves immediate stimulus presentation (e.g., delivery of a token) following disruptions; however, experimenters have also removed tokens contingent upon disruptions. In the present study, we compared the effects of the GBG-stimulus…

The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the effects of a token economy on on-task behaviors by two seventh grade boys with varying disabilities within a public school inclusion classroom setting. At the end of the study, the participant identified with ASD increased his on-task behaviors approximately 52%. The participant identified with…

Token reinforcement procedures and concepts are reviewed and discussed in relation to general principles of behavior. The paper is divided into four main parts. Part I reviews and discusses previous research on token systems in relation to common behavioral functions--reinforcement, temporal organization, antecedent stimulus functions, and…

The authors utilized Applied Behavior Analysis to examine the effects of using tokens with response cost (the Checkbook Management System) on decreasing the inappropriate speaking-out behaviors of a 14-year-old special education student. After functional behavior analysis indicated that the most likely function of the behavior was attention…

An individual free token/response cost system was used to decrease the stuttering of an elementary-level student. Reasons for the effectiveness of this technique may include its provision of immediate feedback, use of visual cues, and simple recordkeeping. (Author/CL)

Injection drug users (IDUs) are at risk for HIV and viral hepatitis, and risky injection behavior persists despite decades of intervention. Cognitive behavioral theories (CBTs) are commonly used to help understand risky injection behavior. The authors review findings from CBT-based studies of injection risk behavior among IDUs. An extensive…

The Positive Education Program (PEP) in Cuyahoga, Ohio, incorporates a token economy and group process approach into the daily school routine for emotionally disturbed and behaviorally handicapped students. At elementary and secondary levels, minimum rules and expectations as well as privileges awarded for behaviors are clearly set forth. The…

Of 673 special education teachers responding to the survey, over 55 percent reported that behavior modification was not their major system of classroom management. Responses are broken down by categorical title of classroom for experiences with positive reinforcement, time out, negative reinforcement, contingency contracting, response cost,…

Potential hazards and dangers of using the token economy approach to behavior change with head injured individuals are identified and it is suggested that the injured person's active awareness of reinforcement contingencies may sometimes be deleterious. (DB)

A creative writing program using a token reinforcement approach for six 10- to 12-year-old students with learning and behavior problems resulted in increased output of written words, reduced spelling errors, and improved composition quality. (CL)

A contingency-based lottery system was implemented to improve the classroom behavior of 18 learning disabled and educable mentally handicapped students, aged 13 to 16 years. Results indicated substantial increases in times students remained in assigned areas, and numbers of students prepared for class; and marked reduction in nonauthorized…

While many studies have documented the negative consequences of excessive television watching, few behavioral programs have investigated techniques for reducing television viewing. A 13-year-old girl who watched from 6 to 9 hours of television daily was provided a behavioral program featuring a token-actuated timer in an attempt to reduce her…

Two kindergarten boys with behavior problems were given "happy faces" at the beginning of each period, which were removed contingent on inappropriate behavior. Retention of a number of "happy faces" earned a large "happy face," redeemable for privileges at home. Low rates of inappropriate behavior were observed while the system was in effect.…

The following stages in planning a token economy with students having behavior problems are discussed: (1) identifying target behaviors; (2) specifying and selecting reinforcers; (3) identifying token types and schedules; (4) planning token distribution and redemption; (5) initiating and implementing the token economy system; and (6) planning…