Theories of scholarship as ritual in nursery school and kindergarten and education as contest in elementary school through secondary school are discussed. Consequences of carrying such false notions into higher education are noted. Mastery, intellect, and courage are proposed as the three elements necessary to scholarship. (Article originally…

Systematic and intensive interviews with 68 men in their early thirties suggested that the principal effects of a liberal education were the stabilization, symbolization, and integration of values; the effects of graduate and professional school were the integration and allocentric maturation of intellect and the symbolization of self-concept.…