Researchers across many fields have called for greater attention to heterogeneity of treatment effects--shifting focus from the average effect to variation in effects between different treatments, studies, or subgroups. True heterogeneity is important, but many reports of heterogeneity have proved to be false, non-replicable, or exaggerated. In…

Three studies investigated goal expectancy as a variable in teaching-learning situations. The first study looked at the effect of the student's expectancy of the type of test to be given on their ability to recall word lists. There was a strong type-of-test expectancy effect in that those persons expecting to recall words in any sequence actually…

The question examined in this paper is: what is known exactly about variables that affect long-term retention of knowledge learned in school? U. Neisser (1982) asserts that "it is difficult to find even a single study, ancient or modern, of what is retained from academic instruction." Further, popular belief holds that much of the knowledge…