Many of the difficulties that students have with mathematical symbolism seem to stem from the use of a horizontal form for an equation and a vertical form for computation. The differences between these two forms are discussed. (JT)

This paper discusses six aspects of current practice in mathematics instruction of elementary school children: (1) use of symbolization, (2) use of models, (3) consideration of child development, (4) "logical" vs. "natural" approaches, (5) individualization, and (6) diagnosis and prescription. The author argues that symbols are frequently…

The purpose of this study was to evaluate a practical procedure for determining the optimum sequencing of pictorial classification tasks in science using mean difficulty indices generated by a standard sample of grade two students. Acquisition of such skills can affect the learner's performance on subsequent material and the teacher's efforts in…

This study was conducted to determine the relative effectiveness of the use of three different combinations of enactive, ikonic and symbolic representation in teaching multiplication to third-grade students. Ninety students in three classrooms were instructed in accordance with the assigned treatment for nine weeks. Groups were equated using the…