Actual and potential contributions from the fields of anthropology, sociology, ecological and environmental psychology, and ethology to measurement and evaluation, particularly in early childhood education, are discussed. The diversity and potency of these approaches suggest that a multidisciplinary, eclectic approach to finding measures for…

Various examples of communication in species ranging from bumble bees to dolphins are examined in this paper. Focus is directed to indications of the cognitive ability of each species. The signals of cognition include evidence of: adaptability to a new situation; long term memory; and the property of displacement. Most of the sources reviewed…