This paper investigates self assessment using dual scaling which is a descriptive, optimal, non linear multidimensional and multivariate method that may be used to analyze nonlinear multivariate data "very effectively and exhaustively". Self assessment was defined as "the involvement of students in identifying standards and/or…

Despite all intentions in the course of the Bologna Process and decades of investment into improving the social dimension, results in many national and international studies show that inequity remains stubbornly persistent, and that inequity based on socio-economic status, parental education, gender, country-of-origin, rural background and more…

International studies like PISA use context student or school questionnaires to collect data on student family background, attitudes and learning context. Questionnaire constructs are typically measured using dichotomous or Likert-type items. Scaling of questionnaire items in order to obtain measures of family background, student attitudes or…