Preschool children often confuse letters with their mirror images when they try to read and write. Mirror confusion seems to occur more often in line with the direction of script (e.g., left-to-right for the Latin alphabetic script), suggesting that the processing of letter orientation and text directionality may be interrelated in preliterate…

In this article, I illustrate how research from cognitive science and the science of reading can inform research on the science of reading instruction. This purpose is accomplished by focusing on four recently published randomized control trials of instruction designed to teach alphabet letters to 3- and 4-year-old children (N = 342) attending…

Discrimination of reversible mirrored letters (e.g., d and b) poses a challenge when learning to read as it requires overcoming "mirror invariance," an evolutionary-old perceptual tendency of processing mirror images as equivalent. The present study investigated "when," in reading development, mirror-image discrimination…

This article addresses the characteristics of learners in the emergent stage of literacy development and describes two instructional practices that facilitate the development of the alphabetic principle and concept of word in text.

Letter learning is nuanced, complex, and essential to the development of an effective literacy processing system. Forming and naming letters, rapidly differentiating between visually similar letters, and recognizing their sound correspondences are foundational to becoming a reader and writer. Indeed, control over letters affects monitoring,…

In the early heyday of ITA education, English as a second language (ESL) educators played a key role in defining three basic learning needs for ITAs: Language, teaching, and culture. Of this model, culture is the most broadly defined and least developed component. It was predicted by some, apparently on the basis of nationality, that ITAs would…

One challenge for many international teaching assistants (ITAs) is improving their spoken English fluency after arrival in the U.S.A. It may be argued that poor fluency, with its hallmarks of slow speech rate, false starts, and particularly pauses that violate phrasal boundaries, account for the failure of many ITAs to be certified by their…

This study investigated the process by which the representational activity and knowledge about drawing and letter and number writing emerge in children 21-46 months old. The results revealed that representational activities developed with age through several phases. Beginning at age 2, children produced different marks for different systems, but…

A SURVEY OF 34 KEY PUBLICATIONS ON THE INITIAL TEACHING ALPHABET WHICH HAVE APPEARED SINCE JANUARY 1967 IS PRESENTED. THE PUBLICATIONS ARE CONSIDERED UNDER THE HEADINGS RESEARCH CONCLUSIONS, THE SECOND BRITISH I.T.A. EXPERIMENT, COMPOSITION IN I.T.A., FUTURE RESEARCH REPORTS, AND THE APPLICATION OF I.T.A. COMPLETE BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA ARE PROVIDED.…

A REACTION TO THE CRITIQUE CONCERNING I/T/A PREPARED BY MARSH AND PUBLISHED IN THE "READING RESEARCH QUARTERLY," FALL 1966, IS PRESENTED. IN THE AUTHORS' OPINIONS, MANY OF MARSH'S ASSUMPTIONS WERE FAULTY BECAUSE OF INADEQUATE INFORMATION, AND THE ASSUMPTION THAT THE I/T/A STUDENTS RECEIVED MORE AND BETTER MATERIALS AND INSTRUCTION IS UNFOUNDED…

Lists criticisms and responses to the i.t.a. (MM)