When speakers refer to the same referent multiple times in a conversation, they tend to follow established patterns of usage, known as "conversational precedents." Research has found that listeners expect speakers to follow precedents, and that this expectation guides their search for referents (Barr, D. J., & Keysar, B. (2002). "Anchoring…

A method is proposed in which nondefined Chinese characters may be uniquely classified thus making them compatible for machine translation. An optical-digital device is used to locate nondefined geometric shapes within Chinese characters via spatial filtering techniques and cyclic cross-correlation. Seventeen nondefined geometric shapes are found…

Paraphrase, as it reflects the processes of remembering rather than those of forgetting, implies that language is best transmitted in one form and stored in another. The dual representation of linguistic information that is implied by paraphrase is important for storing information that has been received and for transmitting information that has…

Overall and specific tasks involved in learning a foreign language and the factors that promote or retard learning are considered. To apply theories of learning and teaching, behavioral objectives for the learner must be considered. A macro-level learning theory is useful in conceptualizing reasons for student success and failure and in…