Participants in achievement tests or psychometric scales can be naturally divided into various sub-groups such as gender, race, social economic status, school district, etc. In order to make meaningful comparison between groups, each item in the test/scale should measure the same underlying construct for participants came from different groups.…

A new Joint Comprehensive Evaluation System for the assessment of 15 different federal programs has been developed by the U.S. Office of Education. In this system these diverse program services will be thought of as resources available to meet the needs of critical target groups. Using this approach, a set of nine crucial questions that need to be…