This study tested two cognitive models, learning styles and dual coding, which make contradictory predictions about how learners process and retain visual and auditory information. Learning styles-based instructional practices are common in educational environments despite a questionable research base, while the use of dual coding is less…

A total of 102 children (17 from each of the kindergarten, first, and second grades and of two disparate socioeconomic backgrounds) were administered a series of tasks involving verbal recall. The purpose of this testing was to compare the verbal recall ability of children of different ages and socioeconomic status. The verbal material was read to…