Causal-formative indicators are often used in social science research. To achieve identification in causal-formative indicator modeling, constraints need to be applied. A conventional method is to constrain the weight of a formative indicator to be 1. The selection of which indicator to have the fixed weight, however, may influence statistical…

This article describes a secondary analysis of the National Assessment of Educational Progress 2008 eighth-grade visual arts data (N = 3,912). These assessments occur under government mandate on a periodic schedule and data on the arts were collected in 1997 and again in 2008. The purpose of this study was to predict students' visual art response…

In this article, the authors extend the results of Aguirre-Urreta, Rönkkö, and Marakas (2016) concerning the omission of a relevant causal indicator by testing the validity of the assumption that causal indicators are entirely superfluous to the measurement model and discuss the implications for measurement theory. Contrary to common wisdom…