Japan has a longstanding history of shadow education, which has evolved, transformed, and extended beyond its borders. Japanese shadow education institutions, known as "juku," have expanded worldwide, including in Asia, the US, and Europe, offering offline and online tutoring services mainly for Japanese expatriates. This study examines…

Private educational activities designed to enhance student outcomes outside the formal schooling system are increasingly referred to as shadow education. In Japan, shadow education traditionally consists of for-profit cram schools or "juku." "Juku" take many forms in Japan, yet their primary function is to offer students extra…

This paper reconsiders the concept of "inclusion" by examining conceptions of "totality/wholeness," while exploring conflicts and dilemmas among various actors across the boundaries between the formal and non-formal in the Japanese public education system. Referencing the process surrounding the enactment of the new law on…

Pre-pandemic studies indicate that East Asian students' migration to ASEAN Outer Circle nations to study English by no means marks their departure from an idealized anglophone English world. Via research conducted during the pandemic when online learning had become mainstream, this study further explores the significance of such students' English…

Extended education flourishes all over the world. Within different cultures and sociopolitical backgrounds, it takes different terms, forms, and developments across nations. Without identifying the common concepts of extended education, we may not expect further developments in extended education research. This study examined the terms that are…

This paper explores the development of the "hensachi" system in Japanese education from the 1960s when it first appeared as a "de facto" measure for scholastic achievement. Unlike absolute scoring systems (such as A-level grades) "hensachi" gave an indication of the probability of getting a place on a particular…

East Asian students consistently top comparative assessments of academic achievement. Yet, rather than attempting to develop more sophisticated understandings of this difference, the most common reaction is to attribute East Asian performance to longer study hours and/or the attendance at schools focused on academic skill enhancement and test…

While shadow education, organized learning activities outside formal school, has grown greatly around the world, the relationship between formal schooling and shadow education has not been well investigated. This study is therefore intended to empirically test whether formal education's structure (i.e. tracking) affects students' shadow education…

Considering the great impact the first PISA-results caused in Germany and Japan, this study seeks to provide an explanation for the continuous higher achievement rates of students in the PISA-winner country Japan compared to their German peers. Another great difference between the two participants that was detected in PISA is the correlation…

Japanese compulsory education had been praised because of its equality around the early 80s. However, since the third wave-educational reform that began in the 1980s and still persists, it has been pointed out that there are disparities between schools in terms of students' socioeconomic background and academic performance. Although there have…

In recent years, local and global for-profit e-learning providers have expanded in Asia. A combination of factors has encouraged such development: The accelerating roll-out of technology, the availability of sophisticated learning management systems, and the high growth rates of Internet usage by the 510 million or so Asians who now represent 39%…

The article describes the important part played by the private sector, in the form of recent institutions known as Special Training Schools, in Japan's system of vocational education and training. Emphasis is placed on the Japanese social and educational context, origins and characteristics of the schools, and their growing popularity. (CH)

Employs a fixed-cost quadratic function to estimate multiple-output cost functions for 94 private universities in Japan for 1991. Outputs were undergraduate teaching, graduate teaching, and research. Results indicate ray economies of scale and both global and product-specific economies of scope. Product-specific economies of scale are shown for…

Investigates the variables that determine distribution of education and redistribution of income through public education. Presents empirical evidence from Japan, which chose a high-quality, low-quantity public system. Calculates enrollment and tax shares by lifetime income distribution and compares previous findings for several state systems.…

Three structural divisions between private and public sectors of higher education are compared: mass private and restricted public sectors; parallel public and private sectors; and, comprehensive public and peripheral private sectors. The private sectors are contrasted in terms of state authority, financial constraints, the student marketplace or…