In the academic literature, private supplementary tutoring is widely called shadow education because much of its content mimics that of schooling. The author of this paper wrote the first global study of the phenomenon, which was published in 1999 and set the agenda for much subsequent research. The present paper considers research emphases over…

Leadership issues in shadow education are under-researched in national, regional and international contexts. In China, local and central governments have imposed stringent control on academic K9 paid tutorial lessons, provided by cram schools under the new double reduction policy (DRP). Many large-scale cram schools have undergone drastic changes…

Unpacking the linkages between mainstream education and private tutoring is fundamental for advancing knowledge on tutoring's implications for learners and systems of learning. This paper explores the micro-processes of teaching-learning at schools and tutoring centres to provide a nuanced understanding of the dynamics between them, in the context…

Using longitudinal data for a nationally representative sample of fifth-graders from the Korean Educational Longitudinal Study of 2013, this study examined the effect of shadow education -- referred to as academically oriented extracurricular activities mainly aimed to prepare for examinations -- on students' creative thinking. To estimate the…

This paper explores how parents in Hong Kong perceive the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the use of academic and non-academic private tutoring (PT) for their children, using a thematic analysis of interviews with 80 parents from diverse ethnic and socioeconomic backgrounds. We seek to understand the role of PT in parents' thinking about their…

Eighteen key individuals from the business, labor, and training sectors and other organizations concerned with the purchase of private training programs were consulted in an effort to determine the role of Canada's federal government and New Brunswick's provincial government in quality assurance for consumers of private training programs. There…