Retrieval practice is an effective strategy to promote long-term retention and learning, but students do not always use it in the most effective ways. Applying various intervention design principles that leverage sociomotivational research, we created an intervention targeted not only at teaching students about the efficacy of retrieval practice,…

The provision of feedback with complex information beyond the correct answer, that is, elaborated feedback, can powerfully shape learning outcomes such as transfer, that is, the ability to extend what has been learned in one context to new contexts. However, an understanding of neurocognitive processes of elaborated feedback during…

This study assessed the efficacy of the spaced learning method compared to the activity-oriented method in improving chemistry achievement among high school students, focusing on different cognitive domains. An experimental design involving pre and post-test control groups was employed, with 106 students from two schools participating. The…

Our civilization recognizes that errors can be valuable learning opportunities, but for decades, they have widely been avoided or, at best, allowed to occur as serendipitous accidents. The present research tested whether greater learning success could paradoxically be achieved through making errors by intentional design, relative to traditional…

Asking good questions is vital for scientific learning and discovery, but improving this complex skill is a formidable challenge. Here, we show in two experiments (N = 152) that teaching others--"learning-by-teaching"--enhances one's ability to generate higher-order research questions that create new knowledge, relative to two other…

Successive relearning involves repeated retrieval practice of the same information (with feedback) over multiple, spaced sessions. We implemented successive relearning in an introductory psychology class to explore potential learning benefits. After each weekly lecture, students were sent links via e-mail to engage in three learning practice…

This study tested whether creating drawings helps students generate higher-quality oral explanations during learning by teaching, thereby enhancing learning outcomes. 120 college students studied a scientific text about the human respiratory system. Students then either taught the material on video to a fictitious peer by orally explaining…

Retrieval practice typically benefits later memory more than restudy (i.e., the testing effect). The benefits of retrieval-based learning generalize across a range of materials and contexts, leading many cognitive scientists to advocate for broad educational implementation. However, educators and practitioners call for more research on factors…

Two experiments investigated the effects of an instructional video's setting on learners' retention and application of the video content. Experiment 1 explored competing hypotheses based on theoretical assumptions about whether an authentic setting would serve as a distraction or as a cue for the instructor's expertise. Participants (N = 59)…

This study explored ways to foster generative learning during a narrated video lesson about the human kidney. In a 2 × 3 between-subjects design, 196 college students were randomly assigned to a video format condition and a learning strategy condition. Students listened to oral explanations from the instructor as they viewed either a series of…

Testing (having students recall material) and worked examples (having students study a completed problem) are both recommended as effective methods for improving learning. The two strategies rely on different underlying cognitive processes and thus may strengthen different types of learning in different ways. Across three experiments, we examine…

This study examined the impacts of 2 different graphic organizers (filled-in graphic organizers and interactive graphic organizers) on middle school students' learning processes, outcomes, experiences, and preferences. In Experiment 1, 60 students were assigned to read a short expository passage in 1 of 3 conditions: text-only, filled-in graphic…

Do the cognitive benefits of "interleaving"--the method of alternating between two or more skills or concepts during training--extend to foreign language learning? In four experiments, we investigated the efficacy of interleaved versus conventional blocked practice for teaching adult learners to conjugate Spanish verbs in the…

Introducing new concepts to learners in an order of increasing complexity appears to be beneficial for learning, but typically introduction of concepts does not always adhere to this principle. We examined whether introducing new algebra concepts in a contrasted manner or in an order of increasing complexity instead of a different more typical…

The testing effect, defined as the positive effect of "retrieval practice" (i.e., self-testing) on long-term memory retention relative to other ways to support learning, is a robust empirical phenomenon. Despite substantial scientific evidence for the testing effect, less is known about its effectiveness in relation to individual…