As this historical overview shows, viewing grade retention as a panacea for education woes ignores its negative effects on children. Today's retention rate is high, matching that of the early 1900s. Retained students are more likely to drop out, have underprivileged backgrounds, be male and African American, and have less educated parents.…

This literature review cautions that the issue of whether promotion or retention is more beneficial to student achievement is especially murky when it becomes a political decision. It concludes that grade retention seems to ignore the question of instructional effectiveness, blames the child for failure, and absolves the school of responsibility.…

The Improving America's School Act funds numerous small programs that dissipate its purpose and increase its vulnerability. Congress is debating extension of federal roles into areas such as social promotion, parental rights, reading programs, class-size reduction, and national voluntary tests. Changing budget rules pits education against military…