The test-item bias literature is summarized, emphasizing the conceptual basis for bias detection methods and the technical issues involved in choosing among methods. It describes both judgmental and statistical methods for identifying biased items, and discusses the reconciliation of these two types of evidence. (Author/BW)

This chapter presents several facets of a new approach that uses generalizability theory to conduct cross-level inference in psychological and educational research. Unlike past models for cross-level research, this approach facilitates multiple-level investigations to test the external validity of results and findings. (Author/PN)