Background: Remote learning, or synchronous or asynchronous instruction provided to students outside the classroom, was a common strategy used by schools to ensure learning continuity for their students when many school buildings were forced to shut down due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Differences in technology infrastructures, digital competencies…

In this paper, we consider a two-level multidimensional item response model that examines country differences in extreme response style (ERS) as a possible cause for the achievement-attitude paradox in PISA 2006. The model is an extension of Bolt & Newton (2011) that uses response data from seven attitudinal scales to assess response style and…