In general, private supplementary tutoring is considered an effective means of improving academic achievement by parents. However, previous studies have produced partial or inconclusive results regarding its effectiveness. Thus, the present study conducted a comprehensive analysis based on a specially designed longitudinal survey of private…

Recent decades have brought global expansion of private supplementary tutoring, widely known as shadow education. Such tutoring consumes considerable resources and is usually viewed by participating households as an investment that will increase the recipients' academic achievements. However, research on the effectiveness of tutoring has…

The increase in the use of supplementary education, or "juku," in Japan by Japanese families in order to augment their children's chances of success in entering prestigious pre-tertiary and tertiary institutions is documented (Blumenthal in "Asian Surv" 32(5):448-460, 1992; Bray and Lykins in "Shadow education; private…

Prodigious growth in out-of-school, private educational activities meant to supplement formal schooling is observed worldwide. Why has shadow education expanded, and what does it mean for the future of education in postmodern society? Illustrated by the historical development and recent changes in the Japanese shadow education industry, it is…

The private tutoring industry has come forward as the third great sector of education. The common sense representation about private tutoring is changing. The growing search for supplementary educational support services and the technological innovation have created a new paradigm. This paper focuses on one of the most interesting faces of this…

In 1972, the South Korean government proposed the high school equalization policy (HSEP) to eliminate high-stakes exams and introduce random school assignment to high school entrance. This policy was intended to reduce a financial burden imposed on families due to the costs of children's shadow education. Since its first implementation in major…

This study examines university students' pre-university exposure to extra-curricular English instruction in tutorial or other private supplementary institutions in Korea and abroad. A questionnaire and an in-depth interview were administered to forty-three freshman students enrolled in a foreign language program at a comprehensive university in…

It is widely acknowledged that the private costs of education occupy a substantial part of the overall education cost and thus they have implications for quality and equity in education. The case of Japan demonstrates that access to basic education at junior high school level is unequal and inequitable when considering private costs of education…