Both ad-hoc robust sandwich standard error estimators (design-based approach) and multilevel analysis (model-based approach) are commonly used for analyzing complex survey data with nonindependent observations. Although these 2 approaches perform equally well on analyzing complex survey data with equal between- and within-level model structures…

This article discusses 5 approaches that secondary researchers might use to obtain robust estimates in structural equation modeling analyses when using data that come from large survey programs. These survey programs usually collect data using complex sampling designs and estimates obtained from conventional analyses that ignore the dependencies…