Research suggests that learners will likely spend a substantial amount of time looking at the model's face when it is visible in a video-based modeling example. Consequently, in this study we hypothesized that learners might not attend timely to the task areas the model is referring to, unless their attention is guided to such areas by the model's…

Online learning from video modeling examples, in which a human model demonstrates and explains how to perform a learning task, is an effective instructional method that is increasingly used nowadays. However, model characteristics such as gender tend to differ across videos, and the model-observer similarity hypothesis suggests that such…

Whereas product-oriented worked examples only present a problem solution, process-oriented worked examples additionally explain the rationale behind the presented solution. Given the importance of understanding this rationale for attaining transfer, process-oriented worked examples would be expected to result in more efficient transfer. However, a…