Advances in computer technology and artificial intelligence create opportunities for developing adaptive language learning technologies which are sensitive to individual learner characteristics. This paper focuses on one form of adaptivity in which the difficulty of learning content is dynamically adjusted to the learner's evolving language…

The purpose of this study is to develop teachers' orientations toward teaching science scale from an instructional perspective in a Thai context. The scale consisted of nine orientations with 54 items. The pilot data were collected from 125 secondary science teachers in Thailand and analysed by using the Rasch rating scale model with WINSTEPS…