Causal mechanistic reasoning is a thinking strategy that can help students explain complex phenomena using core ideas commonly emphasized in separate undergraduate courses, as it requires students to identify underlying entities, unpack their relevant properties and interactions, and link them to construct mechanistic explanations. As a…

Introduction: This study aimed to estimate the causal effect of face-to-face learning on student performance in anatomy, compared to online learning, by analysing examination marks under a causal structure. Methods: We specified a causal graph to indicate how the mode of learning affected student performance. We sampled purposively to obtain…

Quasi-experiments are common in studies that estimate the effect of instructional interventions on student performance outcomes. In this type of research, the nature of the experimental design, the choice in assessment, the selection of comparison groups, and the statistical methods used to analyze the comparison data dictate the validity of…

Affective factors such as the achievement emotions are considered critical for students' academic performance in STEM degree programmes and careers. In this study, a reciprocal causation model was tested between two affective factors: enjoyment and anxiety, and organic chemistry course performance. Each variable was measured three times in four…