The study examined whether the modality effect is caused by either high visuo-spatial load or a lack of temporal contiguity when processing written text and pictures. Students (N = 147) viewed pictures on the development of tornados, which were accompanied by either spoken or written explanations presented simultaneously with, before, or after the…

Sensory overload and split attention result in reduced learning when instructors read slides with bullet points and complex graphs during a lecture. Conversely, slides containing relevant visual elements, when accompanied by instructor narration, use both the visual and verbal channels of a student's working memory, thus improving the chances of…

When learning-disabled high school students (N=22) were taught about astronomy by either presenting key concepts with a visual spatial display or by presenting concepts with texts, tests measuring short-term mastery of content favored students taught with the visual display. No differences were found between the groups on transfer or maintenance.…