While chemistry exists in three dimensions, it is presented in two. This down-conversion results in a significant loss in information and often necessitates multiple images/figures to convey the complexity, intricacy, and beauty of a given structure. Currently, three-dimensional models are built to allow students to interact with molecules.…

Previous research claimed that integration of augmented reality on educational settings helps to improve academic achievement of students in collaborative learning environments, as well as to improve their retention and ability to translate this within other environments. Since augmented reality is still considered relatively novel technology in…

Although we are constantly making spatial decisions about where to place our objects and ourselves, few studies in psychology have investigated this phenomenon in-depth. In the current study, we examined how spatial decisions are made over time by tracking students' seating choices in classrooms over the course of a semester (i.e., 12 weeks). We…

Early childhood mathematics education takes attention for decades. The effect of qualified mathematics education during early years has an impact on children's future academic success. Main purposes of the study were twofold; to examine children's current 3D geometry thinking skills and to investigate the development of children's 3D geometry…

Research on elementary students' reasoning on patterning problems with pictorial representations has illustrated that students can visualize structure in patterns in different ways. In this paper, we offer a characterization of students' spatial structures and numerical structures and explain how the link between these two structures can support…

Prior research has found gender differences in spatial tasks in which men perform better, and are more confident, than women. Do gender differences also occur in people's confidence as they perform number-line estimation, a common spatial-numeric task predictive of math achievement? To investigate this question, we analyzed outcomes from six…

Prior research has found gender differences in spatial tasks in which men perform better, and are more confident, than women. Do gender differences also occur in people's confidence as they perform number-line estimation, a common spatial-numeric task predictive of math achievement? To investigate this question, we analyzed outcomes from six…

Anatomy studies are an essential part of medical training. The study of neuroanatomy in particular presents students with a unique challenge of three-dimensional spatial understanding. Virtual Reality (VR) has been suggested to address this challenge, yet the majority of previous reports have implemented computer-generated or imaging-based models…

A growing body of research suggests that children's understanding of mathematical language is critical for their mathematical abilities. Most of this work has been restricted to single language learners (i.e., SLLs), and used dual language learners (i.e., DLLs) as an exclusion criterion, raising questions about the generalizability of these…

Urban and rural children have different levels of performance in arithmetic processing. This study investigated whether such a residence difference can be explained by phonological processing. A total of 1,501 Chinese primary school students from urban and rural areas were recruited to complete nine cognitive tasks: two in arithmetic performance…

The purpose of this study is to investigate the relations among children's symbolic functioning at 15 months, joint attention at 24 months, expressive communication at 24 and 36 months, and executive functioning at 36 months. With the sample from rural areas in the United States collected by the Family Life Project (N = 1,008), a longitudinal data…

Conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous in language and thought, as we usually reason and talk about abstract concepts in terms of more concrete ones via metaphorical mappings that are hypothesized to arise from our embodied experience. One pervasive example is the conceptual projection of valence onto space, which flexibly recruits the vertical and…

Explore young children's remarkable everyday math that can lay the groundwork for formal math education in kindergarten and beyond. Readers will learn how math is embedded in children's everyday lives, how daily routines contribute to the development of important math concepts, and what adults can do to foster the joy of early math learning.…

Background/purpose: STEAM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Arts, Mathematics) research and embodied design research have explored the role of full-body movement and multimodal actions in mathematical learning. However, the expressive and dynamic aspects of embodied mathematics learning remain underexplored. This paper aims to address this gap by…

Studies have shown that iconicity can provide a benefit to non-signers during the learning of single signs, but other aspects of signed messages that might also be beneficial have received less attention. In particular, do other features of signed languages help support comprehension of a message during the process of language learning? The…